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International trade: A Historical Overview of the Exchange of Goods and Services Across Borders



Our new Visual Data Center features a catalog of trade and industry data visualizations for users to explore the latest trade data analysis, discover industry insights and trends, and search for data products based on specific criteria. Check out data visualizations on U.S. and global trade statistics, travel & tourism and manufacturing industries, trade enforcement, and more.




International trade




The International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, manages this global trade site to provide access to ITA information on promoting trade and investment, strengthening the competitiveness of U.S. industry, and ensuring fair trade and compliance with trade laws and agreements. External links to other Internet sites should not be construed as an endorsement of the views or privacy policies contained therein. This site contains PDF documents. A PDF reader is available from Adobe Systems Incorporated.


The United States Court of International Trade, established under Article III of the Constitution, has nationwide jurisdiction over civil actions arising out of the customs and international trade laws of the United States.


The International Trade Group at Holland & Knight represents U.S. and foreign companies, institutions, associations, and foreign governments on virtually all aspects of international trade matters. Through our familiarity with the trade policy process in the United States, our contacts within the Executive Branch and Congressional offices and committees, and our experience in the application of U.S. trade laws, and multilateral and bilateral trade agreements, we can assist clients in understanding trade issues and resolving trade problems. We are well versed in dealing with the regulatory agencies that oversee international trade matters and regularly appear before these agencies. As a result of doing business in and with many countries around the world, our Trade Group has developed an in-depth understanding of differing business cultures and legal systems. This experience and knowledge provide a direct benefit to our clients.


Our Trade Group represents the interests of foreign governments and U.S. and foreign industries before the agencies of the United States Government, the United States Congress and multilateral financial institutions. We partner with our clients to determine the desired trade policy outcomes, create a detailed plan to implement those outcomes and then strive to effectively lobby the relevant governmental and international entities to achieve the desired result.


Representations have included, among others, the Kingdom of Bahrain and the governments of the United Kingdom, El Salvador, all five Central American countries, Turkey, Senegal, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, as well as a broad range of foreign commercial interests. We also have considerable experience with the GATT, WTO, CBI, NAFTA and other trade agreements. Our Trade Group has advised and provided counseling in trade negotiations regarding market access for goods and services in unilateral (GSP, CBI), bilateral and multilateral (GATT, WTO, NAFTA) trade agreements, and in bilateral services and investment issues.


Holland & Knight has an active international trade litigation practice, including participation in antidumping, countervailing duty, safeguard (Section 201) proceedings before the Court of International Trade, and other trade remedy litigation. For two decades, we have initiated representations on behalf of domestic and foreign manufacturers, trade associations and multinational trading companies. Our Trade Group has extensive experience providing counsel and representing clients in original investigations, administrative review, changed circumstances reviews, scope determinations, anti-circumvention investigations and sunset reviews. In addition, our Trade Group has extensive experience in litigation of Customs cases and those of other trade agencies before the Court of International Trade.


For decades, companies built their global strategies around a set of basic premises. International trade and investment would grow ever freer, continue to drive global GDP growth, and be governed by multilateral rules and institutions. To secure a cost advantage, companies should build vast global footprints that enable them to manufacture and source in low-cost nations, and sell into virtually any national market.


Geopolitical shifts, disruptive technologies, and changing cost structures around the world are shattering assumptions of international business. The rapidly evolving, increasingly complex international trade environment certainly presents great risks. But it is also creating enormous opportunities for companies that know how to navigate it and are agile enough to adapt.


Some may still argue that these examples are the results of specific political leaders in specific countries, and that once those leaders are gone, these sorts of problems will disappear. However, while the current political tensions around trade in many parts of the world may evolve, the four megatrends mentioned above will ensure that the international trading system will not return to the broad trend of trade liberalization and economic globalization that the world saw in the 1990s and 2000s.


OFAC administers a number of different sanctions programs. The sanctions can be either comprehensive or selective, using the blocking of assets and trade restrictions to accomplish foreign policy and national security goals.


A federal grand jury in Houston, Texas, has returned a criminal indictment against eight individuals, while a related civil complaint has charged 14 individuals and one company relating to international trade fraud violations stemming from a decade-long scheme involving tires from China.


The indictment and complaint allege the defendants conspired to avoid anti-dumping duties associated with off-the-road (OTR) and light vehicle and truck (LVT) tires from China. Working through and with Winland, individuals allegedly imported OTR and LVT tires from companies that were subject to anti-dumping duties associated with Chinese tire manufacturers who had engaged in unfair trade practices in the United States.


William Kanellis of TFTF is handling the civil matter. TFTF is an inter-agency law enforcement task force with the primary mission of identifying, interdicting and prosecuting international trade fraud. Assistant U.S. Attorneys Suzanne Emilady and Craig Feazel of the Southern District of Texas are prosecuting the criminal case.


This article is part of an online publication providing recent statistics on international trade in goods, covering information on the EU's main partners, main products traded, specific characteristics of trade as well as background information.


In 2021, the ratio of exports to imports (the cover ratio) was particularly high in favour of exports to Russia and China (see Figure 2), which in absolute terms also had the largest annual trade surpluses. The cover ratio was lowest for India, the United Kingdom and the United States.


In 2020, EU trade was hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic, with a significant fall observed for both exports (-9.3 %) and imports (-11.5 %) (see Figure 6). However, both recovered strongly in 2021, with imports of goods growing by 23 %, while exports of goods increased by 13 %. Looking at the last decade, export growth rates, after recording a significant increase in 2011 and 2012, remained slightly positive until 2019. The imports growth rates peaked in 2011, followed by small fluctuations between 2012 and 2015, before growing significantly in 2017 and 2018.


Statistics on the international trade of goods measure the value and quantity of goods traded between EU Member States (known as intra-EU trade) and goods traded by Member States with non-EU member countries (known as extra-EU trade). These statistics are the official source of information on imports, exports and the trade balance in the EU, its Member States and the euro area.


Statistics are published for each declaring country with respect to each partner country, for several product classifications. One of the most commonly used product classifications is the standard international trade classification (SITC Rev. 4) of the United Nations (UN); this allows a comparison of international trade statistics to be made on a worldwide basis.


In extra-EU trade statistics, the data shown for the EU treat this entity as a single trading block. In other words, the data for exports relate only to those exports from the EU that leave the trading block and are destined for the rest of the world, while extra-EU imports relate to imports from the rest of the world (non-EU member countries) coming into the EU. By contrast, when reporting data for individual EU Member States, international trade flows are generally presented in terms of world trade flows (including both intra-EU and extra-EU partners). Statistics on trade between the EU Member States (intra-EU trade) cover imports and exports of goods recorded by each Member State.


The statistical values of extra- and intra-EU trade are recorded at their free-on-board (FOB) value for exports and their cost, insurance and freight (CIF) value for imports. The values reported comprise only those subsidiary costs (freight and insurance) which relate, for exports, to the journey within the territory of the EU Member State from which the goods are exported and, for imports, to the journey outside the territory of the Member State into which the goods are imported.


The United Kingdom is considered as an extra-EU partner country for the EU for the whole period covered by this article. However, the United Kingdom was still part of the internal market until the end of the transitory period (31 December 2020), meaning that data on trade with the United Kingdom are still based on statistical concepts applicable to trade between the EU Member States. Consequently, while imports from any other extra-EU trade partner are grouped by country of origin, the United Kingdom data reflect the country of consignment. In practice this means that the goods imported by the EU from the United Kingdom were physically transported from the United Kingdom but part of these goods could have been of other origin than the United Kingdom. For this reason, data on trade with the United Kingdom are not fully comparable with data on trade with other extra-EU trade partners. 2ff7e9595c


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